The research examines motivation in creative work. Following the influential work of Amabile (1997, 1998) in creativity studies, there has been a strong assumption that creativity depends on 'intrinsic' motivation, and that 'extrinsic' motivators, including interventions by managers, both positive (rewards) and negative (blame, criticism), can either undermine intrinsic motivation or at best play a minor reinforcing role after the fact. This assumption builds upon McGregor's (1960) 'theory Y' model of motivation and leadership, arguing that all employees will be more productive if they enjoy some autonomy and self-motivation in their work, rather than merely satisfying externally imposed instructions.
Whilst not necessarily disputing this broad consensus, we believe it represents an oversimplification of creativity and creative work. The latter encompasses a range of tasks, roles and settings and 'creativity' has also been broken down into multiple thinking modes, capabilities and competences. So whilst intrinsic motivation has been associated with heuristic tasks or with idea generation for example, these represent only one aspect of creative work and creative thinking respectively.
Furthermore in an organisational setting several different tasks, individuals, teams and methods may be involved simultaneously, meaning that managers must address multiple forms of motivation and adapt their leadership style accordingly. In 'transorganisational' (Eikhof 2014) settings (operating outside formal organisational structures but cooperating with them, as freelancers or 'portfolio workers'), creative individuals may be switching between self-imposed forms and structures of work, from employed to self-employed or amateur. These roles overlap and ideas and processes cross-pollinate across different spaces and times during a creative career, making it hard to draw a clear division between paid and unpaid work, labour and 'free time'.
A further area for investigation is the social context in which motivation and creativity are enacted and reported. The individual psychology of motivation is embedded in social relationships, for example competition, hierarchy and a desire to impress others. This is especially true in relation to creative labour, where the mythology of creativity provides a framework for individual self-mythologising and self-promotion (Eikhof and Haunschild 2006). Since the research itself is a form of social interaction we should not assume that individual accounts of motivation are necessarily reliable. This of course presents a methodological challenge for the researchers.
We are also interested to understand the subjective aspects of creative work. Much valuable work has been done on the organisational structures and social hierarchies in which creative work takes place (e.g. Hesmondhalgh and Baker 2010). Beyond these real, objectively defined structures and constraints, what part is played by self-constructed rules, emotional factors (anxiety, self-doubt, self-affirmation, etc)?
Methodology
Whereas previous studies have tended to use an experimental approach to test a priori hypotheses about motivation and creativity, this study aims to take a more open, ethnographic approach in order to capture the complexity of lived experience in so-called creative occupations and organisations. We also intend to address the issue of unreliable evidence (self-mythologising) noted above. The pilot study will be used to reflect on these methodological challenges and consider appropriate solutions (e.g. participant observation, automated email prompts, cross-referring between participants).
Initially we will conduct interviews with three groups of creative workers - writers, actors, musicians. The larger study will be based on a structured sample across several creative professions and organisations (the choice and balance will be determined following the pilot study). The larger study will also include interviews with managers of creative workers and reflection on the role of leadership of creative work from the perspective of both the leaders and the led. In the pilot we will be talking to a smaller sample of creative workers.
Research objectives
• To explore the multiplicity of definitions of and attitudes to 'work' in the creative industries (including the theoretical claims of ‘good’ vs ‘bad’ work)
• To analyse different forms of motivation in relation to different forms of creative work
• To consider how the value and meaning of creative work is framed by social situations (competition, self-image and social role, comparing and differentiating against others, anxiety or guilt)
• To consider how organisational norms and structures release or constrain individual creativity and motivation (management / leadership, hierarchy, peer pressure / peer approval)
Objectives of the pilot study
• Refine research questions and methodology for the main project
• Produce full application to AHRC by January 2016
• Generate at least one co-authored paper / conference presentation
Impact
The pilot offers pathways to impact in a larger funded project, albeit some impacts could still be generated if the AHRC bid is unsuccessful. The research has implications for academic studies of creativity and creative labour and practical implications for creative management. According to the literature, intrinsic motivation leaves creative workers vulnerable to low wages and poor working conditions, on the assumption that work and careers are driven by 'love not money' (Hesmondhalgh and Baker 2010). On the other hand autonomy and self-motivation are associated with ‘good’ work in the creative industries (Banks 2007). The project will reflect critically on these assumptions and on definitions of creative labour. Research will also challenge definitions and assumptions in creativity theory and creative management (leadership, entrepreneurship, HR). The latter has practical implications for managers and workers in the creative industries. Research outcomes will be fed back initially through the organisations participating in the study, and then to a broader constituency via professional associations like Clore Leadership Programme, PACT, Association of Independent Music, Creative Skillset, Creative and Cultural Skills, Equity, AIR: Artist’s Interaction and Representation and through professional journals (e.g. Arts Professional). We will also aim to share research findings with professional networks via joint promotions with bodies such as NESTA and Warwick Creative Exchange.