Dietary intake and cardiometabolic risk factors among Venezuelan adults: a nationally representative analysis

Background: Increasing trends in global obesity have been attributed to a nutrition transition where healthy foods are replaced by ultra-processed foods. It remains unknown if a nutrition transition has occurred in Venezuela, a country undergoing a socio-political crisis with widespread food shortages. Methods: We describe dietary intake of Venezuelans from a nationally representative study conducted between 2014 and 2017. We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of dietary, sociodemographic, and clinical data from Venezuelans ≥20 years of age (n = 3420). Dietary intake was assessed using a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Standardized clinical and anthropometric measurements estimated obesity, type 2 diabete, and hypertension. A Dietary Diversity Score (DDS) was calculated using an amended Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women score where the range was 0 to 8 food groups, with 8 being the most diverse. Analyses accounted for complex survey design by estimating weighted frequencies of dietary intake and DDS across sociodemographic and cardiometabolic risk-based subgroups. Results: The prevalence of obesity was 24.6% (95% CI: 21.6–27.7), type 2 diabetes was 13.3% (11.2–15.7), and hypertension was 30.8% (27.7–34.0). Western foods were consumed infrequently. Most frequently consumed foods
included coffee, arepas (a salted corn flour cake), and cheese. Mean DDS was 2.3 food groups (Range: 0–8, SE: 0.07) and this score did not vary among subgroups. Men, younger individuals, and those with higher socioeconomic status were more likely to consume red meat and soft drinks once or more weekly. Women and those with higher socioeconomic status were more likely to consume vegetables and cheese once or more daily. Participants with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension had lower daily intake of red meat and arepas compared to participants without these risk factors