Low-Temperature Deposition Modeling of β-TCP Scaffolds with Controlled Bimodal Porosity

Low-temperature deposition modeling (LDM), otherwise termed freeze-form extrusion fabrication or rapid freeze prototyping, involves dispensing an aqueous-based ceramic paste or polymeric hydrogel along predefined paths in subzero ambient temperatures, followed by freeze-drying. The solidification of the material after the deposition of each layer enables large parts to be built without the need for organic binders, which can often have cytotoxic effects. Freeze-dried parts obtained from LDM typically exhibit pores with openings that range in average between 1 and 40 μm. The technique offers the ability to control their size distribution and orientation through varying a number of processing and material parameters. Herein, we describe the construction of an LDM system from readily available electromechanical components, as well as the preparation of a β-ΤCP paste formulation with the appropriate flow characteristics for fabricating hierarchical scaffolds with tailorable bimodal porosity for applications in bone tissue engineering.